A. Armenian Myotis/Armenian Whiskered Bat (Myotis hajastanicus)
1. Taxonomy
Although this species was originally included in Myotis mystacinus, two studies24,25
have differentiated this bat on the basis of morphologic comparison.26
2. Physical Description
Myotis hajastanicus has a brown hair base, a yellowish-brown back, light yellow to
white abdominal coloring, and light brown wing membranes.27 Its combined head and
body measures 45 mm, its forearm measures 34.5 to 37.3 mm, and its wingspan measures
200 mm. It weighs between 4.5 and 9 g.28
3. Distribution and Range
This bat is native to Armenia.29 It is endemic30 to the eastern bank of Sevan Lake,
Sordza (Nadezdino)31 and is known only from five sites.32 Lake Sevan is located to the
northeast of Armenia’s capital city of Yerevan, and is one of the largest alpine lakes in
the world.33
24 Benda, P. and Tsytsulina K. A. 2000. Taxonomic revision of Myotis mystacinus group
(Mammalia: Chiroptera) in the western Palearctic. Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae 64:
331-398.
25 Tsytsulina, E. A. 2000. Geographic variation of the whiskered bat Myotis mystacinus (Kuhl,
1817) in the Caucasus. 3: 35-42.
26 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
27 Argyropulo 1939. Zool. Sbornick, 1 (Trudy Biol. Inst. 3): 27.
28 Id.
29 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
30 Id.
31 Wilson, Don E. & DeeAnn M. Reeder (editors). 2005. “Myotis hajastanicus.” Mammal Species
of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. (3rd ed). online, page 508.
32 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
33 Wang, Hua, Benoit Laplante, Xun Wu, and Craig Meisner. 2004. “Estimating
Willingness-to-Pay with Random Valuation Models: an application to Lake Sevan,
Armenia. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3367. August. Page 1-41, 11.
4. Habitat and Ecology
The exact habitat of this species is unknown.34 However, it may be similar to the
habitat of Myotis aurascens, which includes forest and scrub vegetation. M. aurascens
roosts in underground sites, and it is believed that M. hajastanicus may as well.35
5. Population and Trend
The population size of this species, as well as the population trend, is not known,
and based on recent surveys conducted in 2003 this species may be extinct.36 Although
the survey targeted this bat specifically, no evidence of the species was found. There
have been no proven accounts of this species since the 1980s.37
6. Major Threats
The destruction of habitat and roost sites may be a threat to this species.38
7. Conservation Actions
This bat is one of 45 bat species listed as protected in Europe under the Agreement
on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats, more commonly known as
EUROBATS.39 The goals of EUROBATS are the “identification of important sites for
bat conservation, surveys of bat population status and trends and studies of their
migratory patterns.”40 Based on the information gathered by these activities, the
Agreement aims to develop guidelines that the parties then implement on national
levels.41 These guidelines involve topics that include (1) important underground and
overground sites and foraging habitats, (2) sustainable forest management for bats, (3)
remedial timber treatment and anti-parasitic drugs for livestock, (4) capture and study of
captured wild bats, (5) the impact of wind turbines on bat populations, and (6)
international co-operation between governments and non-governmental organizations. In
addition to developing these guidelines, the member states to this agreement prohibit “the
deliberate capture, keeping or killing of bats except for research purposes, for which a
special permit is required.”42
34 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
35 Id.
36 Id.
37 Id.
38 Id.
39 UNEP/EUROBATS. “Protected Species.” Available at:
www.eurobats.org/about/protected_species.htm. Accessed on 6/24/2010.
40 UNEP/EUROBATS. “The Agreement of the Conservation of Populations of European Bats.”
Available from:
www.eurobats.org/publications/leaflet/EUROBATS_leaflet_English.pdf.
Accessed on 6/20/2010.
41 Id.
42 Id.
8. ESA Listing Factors
A. The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its
habitat or range
Since the 1920s, Armenia has undergone drastic human population growth and
growth of urban centers.43 This change, and the resulting pressures on the region’s
ecosystems, have greatly degraded and destroyed these ecosystems.44 During the 70-year
period between 1920 and 1990, Armenia’s population increased 5-fold, and the urban
population expanded 26-fold.45 As a result of this urban population explosion, urban
areas have spread 14-fold during this 70-year period.46 Associated industrial centers have
grown 30-fold, and constructed areas, such as buildings, roads, etc., have grown 20-
fold.47 These serious ecological impacts are due in part to the very small size of
Armenia, which has a total land area of only 29,740 km2.48 Across this area there are
approximately 980 settlements that are connected by road networks spanning 14,000
km.49 This increase in human population and urban areas is one of the most important
threats to biodiversity in Armenia.50
Human population and infrastructure pressure have resulted in marked changes in
Armenian ecosystems.51 Human activities have had an especially heavy impact on forest
habitat, which M. hajastanicus is believed to rely on. Today, forests cover only 10% of
the land in Armenia, which represents a 75% decrease over the past 70 years. Several
regions have been entirely deforested, and others have only very restricted forest cover
remaining.52
Several factors have contributed to deforestation in the country. First, mass
migrations of rural populations into city centers spurred the growth of industry in
Armenia, and demand for wood greatly increased in order to fuel this increased industrial
activity.53 There were two major periods of timber extraction in the country’s history.
43 Biodiversity Strategy for the Republic of Armenia. 1999. “Threats to, and Impacts on,
Biodiversity in Armenia.” Armenia National Report, Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to
CBD Project. Available from
www.nature-ic.am/biodiv/eng/national_report/first/6/index-1.html. Accessed on 7/27/2010.
44 Id.
45 Id.
46 Id.
47 Id. at Table 6.1.
48 Wang, Hua, Benoit Laplante, Xun Wu, and Craig Meisner. 2004. “Estimating Willingness-to-
Pay with Random Valuation Models: an application to Lake Sevan, Armenia. World Bank Policy
Research Working Paper 3367. August. Page 1-41, 11.
49 Biodiversity Strategy for the Republic of Armenia. 1999. “Threats to, and Impacts on,
Biodiversity in Armenia.” Armenia National Report, Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to
CBD Project. Available from
www.nature-ic.am/biodiv/eng/national_report/first/6/index-1.html. Accessed on 7/27/2010.
50 Id.
51 Id.
52 Id.
53 Id.
The first occurred between the 1930s and 1950s. During this period, 450,000 m3 of wood
was removed every year from Armenia’s forests. While this extraction was supposed to
be based on selective logging, it was not, and most of the mature trees in the country
were destroyed. As a result, there is a current lack of mature and post-mature forest
stands in Armenia. The second period of extensive deforestation occurred between 1992
and 1995, which was a period of economic blockade and energy crisis in the country.
During this time, more than 8% of the total forest area, representing approximately
27,000 ha, was damaged and around 7,000 ha were totally denuded. This resulted from a
combination of poor forest management and illegal timber cutting. The effects of the
energy crisis were particularly severe around urban areas, where extensive deforestation
in surrounding areas resulted from the need to supply fuelwood.54
In addition to logging, a second source of deforestation in Armenia is grazing and
agriculture.55 As of 2005, approximately 47% of Armenia’s total land area was used for
agriculture or grazing.56 The majority of agricultural development is occurring in the
Ararat Valley, where the capital city, Yerevan, is located.57 Extensive grazing by cattle
and pigs in forest habitats has also contributed to the degradation of forests and has also
had a strong negative influence on forest regeneration.58
C. Disease or predation
Bat species worldwide may be at risk from white-nose syndrome, caused by a
cold-loving fungus of the Geomyces genus.59 The syndrome has been known to cause
80-97% mortality rates in some large hibernation colonies.60 Until recently, the disease
was restricted to the northeastern United States. However, in 2009 it was detected in
France.61 It is not known how quickly this disease may spread to other areas of the
world, but it poses a severe threat to all bat species, especially those with small ranges of
those restricted to one or two caves. If infected, these species may lose nearly their entire
54 Id.
55 Id.
56 Wang, Hua, Benoit Laplante, Xun Wu, and Craig Meisner. 2004. “Estimating Willingness-to-
Pay with Random Valuation Models: an application to Lake Sevan, Armenia. World Bank Policy
Research Working Paper 3367. August. Page 1-41, 11.
57 Laplante, Benoit, Craig Meisner, and Hua Wang. 2005. “Environment as Cultural Heritage: the
Armenian Diaspora’s Willingness to Pay to Protect Armenia’s Lake Sevan.” World Bank Policy
Research Working Paper 3520. February. Page 1-35, 5.
58 Biodiversity Strategy for the Republic of Armenia. 1999. “Threats to, and Impacts on,
Biodiversity in Armenia.” Armenia National Report, Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to
CBD Project. Available from
www.nature-ic.am/biodiv/eng/national_report/first/6/index-1.html. Accessed on 7/27/2010.
59 Handwerk, Brian. 2008.: "Deadly Bat Disease Linked to Cold-Loving Fungus." National
Geographic News.
news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/10/081031-bat-fungus.html[Accessed October 2010].
60 Id.
61 Puechmaille SJ, Verdeyroux P, Fuller H, Ar Gouilh M, Bekaert M, Teeling EC. 2010 “Whitenose
syndrome fungus (Geomyces destructans) in bat, France.” Emerg Infect Dis. e-pub.
Available online at
www.cdc.gov/eid/content/16/2/pdfs/09-1391.pdf [Accessed October
2010].
population in one fell swoop. Since white-nose syndrome was recently discovered in
Europe, it may be of particular concern for this Armenian species.
D. The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms
While the listing of this species under the EUROBATS agreement is a useful step
towards the conservation of this species, it is insufficient to fully protect M. hajastanicus.
Armenia, the only country in which this bat is located, has not signed the EUROBATS
agreement and thus is not a party to it.62 Although Armenia has submitted update reports
nearly every year since 2001 that discuss how the country is implementing
EUROBATS,63 there does not appear to be a plan that addresses the recovery of M.
hajastanicus. Furthermore, the EUROBATS website only indicates that parties to the
Agreement prohibit “the deliberate capture, keeping or killing of bats” that are listed.64
There is nothing to suggest that non-member parties also must take this action, and since
Armenia is not a member to this Agreement, an important component of the Agreement
may potentially not extend to M. hajastanicus. For these reasons, the EUROBATS
agreement standing alone is not sufficient to protect this bat species.
The IUCN reflects this concern. This organization states that M. hajastanicus
requires additional legal protection and a conservation management plan.65 The IUCN
also recommends that additional research be conducted on the status, ecology, threats,
and conservation measures that are needed for this species and states that a public
awareness campaign would also be valuable.66
Lastly, after extensive research no documents could be found that indicate that law
protects the habitat of this species. This clearly indicates the inadequacy of regulatory
mechanisms. Even if the bats’ habitat was protected by law, the numerous threats that it
faces, including population pressures, expansive urban growth, logging, agriculture, and
grazing,67 indicate that legal habitat protections alone likely would not be adequate to
ensure this species’ survival.
62 UNEP/EUROBATS. “National Reports.” Available at:
www.eurobats.org/documents/national_reports.htm. Accessed on 6/24/2010.
63 Id.
64 Agreement on the Conservation of Bats in Europe. 1991. Treaty Series No. 9. Article III,
Section 1. Available from:
www.eurobats.org/documents/pdf/Agreementtexts/FCO_Agreement_Text_engl.pdf65 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
66 Id.
67 Biodiversity Strategy for the Republic of Armenia. 1999. “Threats to, and Impacts on,
Biodiversity in Armenia.” Armenia National Report, Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to
CBD Project. Available from
www.nature-ic.am/biodiv/eng/national_report/first/6/index-1.html. Accessed on 7/27/2010.
E. Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence
M. hajastanicus has a very restricted range.68 The most threatened species are often
those that exist in very few places.69 Species occupying small habitat ranges, known as
‘narrow-range endemicity,’70 are more likely to become extinct than species that occupy
large habitat ranges, and this fact is “inescapable.”71 Additionally, many species with
naturally small ranges are being further isolated in habitats that are shrinking, largely due
to habitat destruction.72 This applies to M. hajastanicus. This species has a very limited
range, as it is known to occur only on the eastern bank of one lake in one country.73 Due
to the deforestation that has occurred and continues to occur in M. hajastanicus’ small
range,74 the likelihood of further decrease in this species’ already very limited habitat is
high. This increases the likelihood that M. hajastanicus will become extinct if
appropriate action is not taken. FWS has routinely recognized that small population size
and restricted range increase the likelihood of extinction.75
The second factor that makes this species particularly vulnerable to extinction is its
low fecundity. Across all bats species generally, fetal development occurs slowly, with
pregnancies lasting between three to six months.76 In temperate regions, which include
Albania and thus M. hajastanicus, female bats generally produce one young per year.
This is believed to be due to the very large size of bat pups at birth. Young bats comprise
from between 12-15% of the mother’s body mass up to 25% of the mother’s body mass
during pregnancy. Scientists believe that the weight of the pup during pregnancy limits
68 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
69 Bibby, Colin J. 1994. “Recent Past and Future Extinctions in Birds.” Philosophical Transaction
of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 344: 35-40, 35.
70 New, T.R. and D.P.A Sands. “Narrow-range Endemicity and Conservation Status:
interpretations for Australian Butterflies.” Invertebrate Systematics. 16(4): 665-670, 665.
71 Gaston, Kevin. 1998. “Species-range Size Distributions: products of speciation, extinction, and
transformation.” Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society of London B: Biological
Sciences. 353: 219-230, 226.
72 Bibby, Colin J. 1994. “Recent Past and Future Extinctions in Birds.” Philosophical Transaction
of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 344: 35-40, 35.
73 Tsytsulina, K., Benda, P., Aulagnier, S. & Hutson, A.M. 2008. Myotis hajastanicus. In: IUCN
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>.
Downloaded on 03 January 2010.
74 Biodiversity Strategy for the Republic of Armenia. 1999. “Threats to, and Impacts on,
Biodiversity in Armenia.” Armenia National Report, Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan to
CBD Project. Available from
www.nature-ic.am/biodiv/eng/national_report/first/6/index-1.html. Accessed on 7/27/2010.
75 See, for example, FWS candidate assessment forms for Doryopteris takeuchii, Huperzia
stemmermanniae, Megalagrion nesiotes, Melicope degeneri, Melicope hiiakae, Myrsine mezii,
Ostodes strigatus, Partula langfordi, Peperomia subpetiolata, Phyllostegia bracteata, and
Tryonia circumstriata. Accessible via FWS website at
www.fws.gov/endangered/wildlife.html [Accessed November 2009].
76 Nowak, Ronald and Ernest Walker. 1994. Walker’s Bats of the World. John Hopkins University
Press. Page 20.
the mother’s litter size due to her need to fly while pregnant.77
Litter size is also likely limited due to nursing characteristics that are unique to bat
species.78 Most mammals wean their young when the young reach 40%, or less, of their
adult size. Bats, however, nurse their young until they are nearly adult size. This is
because bats cannot feed on their own until their wings are near adult dimensions. This
may contribute to the low fecundity of bats.79 Species with low fecundity are
“particularly predisposed to anthropogenic threats given their low replacement rate.”80
Thus, low fecundity is another reason that M. hajastanicus faces serious risk of
extinction unless further action is taken.
77 Id.
78 Id.
79 Id.
80 Brook, Barry, Navjot Sodhi, and Corey Bradshaw. 2008. “Synergies Among Extinction Drivers
Under Global Change.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 23(8): 453-460, 455.
Source:
PETITION TO LIST
15 BAT SPECIES
UNDER THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT
(16 U.S.C. §§ 1531 et seq.)
www.wildearthguardians.org/site/DocServer/listing_petition_15_bats_10_26_10.pdf?docID=642&AddInterest=1059
